Mineral elements, also called inorganic salts, refer to all elements found in animals and nature except carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They are essential nutrients for building animal tissues and supporting normal physiological functions and metabolic activities.
According to their content and required intake in animals, mineral elements are divided into macroelements and trace elements. Macroelements generally account for over 0.01% of body weight, mainly including calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, sulfur and chlorine. Trace elements normally make up less than 0.01% of body weight. Animals contain many kinds of trace elements. Among them, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, selenium, cobalt, iodine and chromium are commonly supplemented via feed in actual production.
Calcium and phosphorus are the primary minerals that form bones and teeth. Around 99% of calcium and more than 80% of phosphorus in the animal body reside in bones and teeth, and continuously exchange with calcium and phosphorus in blood to maintain dynamic balance. Calcium not only takes part in the mineralization of bones and teeth, but also helps sustain normal excitability of neuromuscular tissues, promotes blood coagulation and reduces capillary permeability. When calcium and phosphorus intake is insufficient, young animals are prone to rickets, while adult animals may suffer from osteomalacia or osteoporosis. However, deficiencies do not depend solely on the absolute supply of calcium and phosphorus: severe imbalance of the calcium‑phosphorus ratio (the optimal physiological ratio for most mammals is roughly 1:1 to 2:1) and vitamin D deficiency can also cause impaired bone mineralization. These three factors should be considered comprehensively. Besides bone formation, phosphorus is an important constituent of phospholipids, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and phosphocreatine. It maintains cell membrane structure, participates in energy metabolism as well as nucleic acid and protein synthesis, and plays a key role in animal growth, reproduction and acid‑base balance regulation.
Sodium is the major extracellular cation in animal body fluids. Together with chlorine and potassium, it maintains osmotic pressure, acid‑base balance and cell membrane potential, and facilitates transmembrane transport of nutrients. Plant‑based feeds are usually high in potassium and low in sodium, so sodium is one of the macroelements most likely to be deficient in production. Early signs of sodium deficiency include poor appetite and pica. Pigs may chew soil, lick walls or bite tails; cattle and sheep lick soil or urine, with rough hair coats and emaciation. Lactating animals produce less milk; laying hens show reduced egg production and lower egg weight. Excess sodium mainly causes salt poisoning. Pigs and poultry are sensitive, and the risk rises sharply with inadequate drinking water. Clinical signs include polydipsia, salivation, muscle tremors, ataxia, and convulsions or even death in severe cases. Ruminants have higher tolerance. In production, salt is generally added to compound feed for pigs and poultry at 0.25%–0.5%. For herbivorous livestock, the addition level in concentrate feed is 0.5%–1%. Grazing cattle and sheep can have free access to salt blocks, and clean drinking water must be guaranteed.
Although trace elements exist in very low concentrations in the body, they exert critical influences on animal growth and development, metabolism, immunity and reproductive performance. Insufficient supply may lead to deficiency diseases; over‑supplementation can also result in poisoning or metabolic disorders. Therefore, they must be added properly in line with feeding standards and species characteristics.
Zinc acts as a component or activator of more than 90 enzymes. It participates in the metabolism of nucleic acids, proteins and carbohydrates, and is vital for animal growth, immunity, reproduction and skeletal development. Zinc deficiency often leads to stunted growth, abnormal skin keratinization, rough hair coats, poor reproductive performance and weakened immunity. Parakeratosis frequently occurs in zinc‑deficient pigs, while zinc‑deficient poultry show retarded growth and poorly developed feathers.
Copper is involved in hemoglobin synthesis, bone formation, pigmentation, myelin sheath formation, immune function, energy metabolism and regulation of multiple hormones. Copper deficiency may cause anemia, growth retardation, faded hair or feathers, skeletal abnormalities, ataxia and reduced fertility. Copper supplementation must be adjusted strictly by species. Pigs have relatively high copper tolerance; any moderate supplementation (especially high‑dose growth‑promoting programmes) must comply with regulatory limits. Ruminants, especially sheep, are extremely sensitive to copper, with a narrow safety range between requirement and toxic dose. Molybdenum and sulfur in the diet can form thiomolybdates in the rumen, which bind copper and inhibit its absorption. Functional copper deficiency may still occur even if dietary copper content seems adequate. Copper supplementation for ruminants cannot simply adopt the standards for pigs; it should be assessed comprehensively based on dietary molybdenum, sulfur, iron and zinc levels.
Manganese activates many enzymes associated with bone formation and the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Manganese deficiency in young poultry causes skeletal dysplasia and tendon lesions (slipped tendon / perosis), ataxia and growth retardation. In adult laying hens, manganese deficiency results in thin, fragile, rough‑shelled eggs and reduced hatchability. Manganese deficiency in ruminants is also linked to impaired reproduction and skeletal disorders.
Iron is a core component of hemoglobin and the cytochrome system, responsible for oxygen transport and cellular respiration. Iron‑deficiency anemia is most common in suckling piglets. Piglets are born with limited iron reserves, and iron from sow’s milk cannot meet the demands of rapid growth. The most widely used and effective measure on farms is intramuscular injection of iron dextran (usually 100–150 mg elemental iron per piglet) within 3 days after birth, followed by iron‑fortified creep feed from 7 days of age. Iron deficiency presents as hypochromic microcytic anemia, lethargy and slow growth.
These mineral elements are commonly incorporated into feed in forms such as calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate, copper sulfate, zinc sulfate, manganese sulfate, sodium selenite, potassium iodide or calcium iodate. Rational formulation of macroelements and trace elements, with full consideration of species differences (in particular, ruminants’ copper sensitivity and special cobalt requirement), elemental antagonism and synergy (calcium‑phosphorus ratio, copper‑molybdenum‑sulfur interaction, selenium and vitamin E, competition between high zinc and copper, etc.) and proper inclusion ratios, helps maintain internal homeostasis in animals and improve their health and production performance.
Post time: Oct-21-2026
